Gay Marriage? Essay

When you think of America, the first thing that should come to your mind is a nation of peace and equality. But in reality it’s not, is it? We live in a nation of racism, sexism, and homophobia. Homosexuals get the worst of all the unfair treatment. Gays have been fighting for rights since the 1960’s, maybe even before then, and yet today in 2012, those pleas for rights are heard, but ignored & lashed at. We should allow same-sex marriage because banning it is unfair, love is all that matters in marriage, & gay families have certain family values that some straight marriages lack. Banning an issue doesn’t make it go away. The fact of the matter is, it’ll always be there: gay people will always exist & so will their need for equal rights. As stated in ’14th amendment’ in the Constitution, â€Å"No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges†¦ nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. † In short, everyone deserves the same, equal rights: that includes gay people. In that case, banning same-sex marriage is unconstitutional. Making this issue illegal is also a form of discrimination. Homophobes ridicule & abuse gay citizens, gays are just being themselves! We are all created equal, so why can’t we all just try to get along? What’s the reason people get married for? Love is. Who’s to judge someone based ;amp; whom they love? No one has the rights to do so. Gays have feelings too, ;amp; them getting married isn’t hurting anyone. In most, basically all, marriages, vows are said to one another. They have many strong family benefits that some straight marriages lack, such as being more open-minded & accepting. As said in a study of gay/lesbian families/parenting, â€Å"Not a single study has found children of gay or lesbian parents to be disadvantaged in any significant respect relative to children of heterosexual parents, (J. Patterson, Pg. 9). † Gay couples have been proven to have stronger emotional bonds than straight couples. Strong family benefits & strong emotional bonds are necessary to long-lasting relationships & marriages. The thing is, it isn’t who you’re raised by, it’s how you’re raised. Banning the issue is unfair, love is all that matters in marriage, & some gay families have certain family values that some straight marriages lack. Gays, lesbians, bisexuals, transgenders, & transsexual people deserve to have the same rights as & be happy like everyone else. Gays should be allowed to marry.

Explain how the men and women in Shakespeare’s Othello misunderstand each other

Analysing the male and female relationships in William Shakespeare's Othello it is clear the sexes fail to understand each other, particularly on the men's part. Whilst the women are more mature and tend to overestimate the men, the men are consumed by their vanity and reputation and cannot accept women honestly. Desdemona and Othello's lack of understanding for each other contributes to their miscommunication. Othello cannot fully trust Desdemona because his love his too idealistic and he fails to comprehend her honest and realistic approach to love: She loved me for the dangers I had passed And I loved her that she did pity them. This implies that Desdemona's affections fuel his ego and he loves her for this more than anything else. Othello's worshipping of Desdemona prohibits him from truly understanding her: O my fair warrior! †¦If it were now to die, ‘Twere to be most happy; for I fear My soul hath her content so absolute That not another comfort succeeds in unknown fate.† He does not perceive her as human and capable of fault: †¦And when I love thee not, chaos is come again. Desdemona on the other hand does not romanticise Othello, but approaches their love realistically and maturely. She loves Othello for the person he is and does not shy from the topic of consummation: I saw Othello's visage in his mind. That I did love the Moor to live with him, †¦ if I be left behind†¦ The rites for which I love him are bereft me†¦ However, as much as Othello cannot understand her honest approach to love, nor can she comprehend his connection between their love and his honour. In this respect she overestimates Othello and fails to see his capacity for jealousy: †¦I think the sun where he was born Drew all such humours from him. Unwittingly, she wounds his pride by lying about the handkerchief and pursuing Cassio's disposition: I say it is not lost†¦ This is a trick to put me from my suit. Pray you let Cassio be received again. The women are seen by the men as possessions and criteria for their honour. Othello cannot conceive that Desdemona is her own person and could have emotions and opinions separate to his. She shows her assertiveness when she defends Cassio, but in doing so questions Othello's judgment. â€Å"You'll never find a more sufficient man.† Where sexuality is concerned, he seeks complete control over her. Her faithfulness is not only needed for his ego, (â€Å"Cuckold me!†) but the possibility that Desdemona has sexual desires frightens and bewilders him: †¦O curse of marriage That we can call these creatures ours And not their appetites! Iago also reflects this possessiveness over his wife. He accuses Cassio and Othello of having leapt into his ‘seat' which implies he owns Emilia, and is astounded when she defiantly reveals his malice at the end: I will not charm my tongue†¦ What, are you mad? I charge you get you home. Brabantio's response to his daughter's marriage holds a similar attitude. Desdemona, a â€Å"maiden never bold,† so still and quiet that she was scared of her own shadow, has been â€Å"stolen† from him. He clearly does not understand his daughter well for we soon see she is strong and assertive: That I did love the Moor to live with him. My downright violence and scorn†¦ May trumpet to the world.† Throughout the play Roderigo's behaviour is a prime example of how the men view the women as possessions. Hopelessly romanticising Desdemona, (who is not aware of his existence, let alone his love for her) he relentlessly pursues her attempting to purchase her through Iago: Therefore make money†¦ I'll sell all my land. Iago speaks of Othello's marriage in terms of piracy and of Desdemona as a treasure ship, reinforcing his ideas of women as possessions: †¦he hath tonight boarded a land-carack. Interestingly, Emilia comments on this weakness of all men. In contrast to the men's complete misconceptions about women, Emilia shows awareness and perceptiveness of the opposite sex. She does understand that men stereotype women and forget they have their own minds: †¦Let husbands know their wives have sense like them: they see and smell, And have palates for both sweet and sour As husbands have. She recognises the jealousy of men's natures. They are not ever jealous for the cause, But jealous for they are jealous. However, although she succinctly predicts what is behind Othello's behaviour, for all her worldliness, she fails to pinpoint the blame to her own husband. This suggests that maybe she doesn't know him that well to consider him capable of such malice. â€Å"The Moor's abused by some most villainous knave.† Preoccupied with honour, the men categorise women into either ‘whores' or ‘Madonnas,' and fail to recognise them as individuals. Desdemona, a real ‘lady,' is continually referred to as â€Å"divine† and all the men greatly esteem her. Their respect is close to worship. Casio says: You men of Cyprus, let her have your knees. Hail to thee, Lady! Roderigo swears he loves her enough to â€Å"incontinently drown† himself. Even Iago says â€Å"Now I do love her too†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and suggests he would like to sleep with her. Bianca, on the other hand, is immediately shunned for being a prostitute and is not worthy of such high regard. The play's humanisation of her undercuts the men's one-dimensional perception: I am no strumpet, but of life as honest As you that thus abuse me. Unlike Desdemona, men cannot align their honour with such a woman as she has been ‘used' and is no longer ‘pure.' In contrast to his approach to the ‘divine Desdemona' Cassio says of Bianca, â€Å"I marry her! What! A customer!† He is indifferent to her love for him, and Bianca does not realise that he will never take her seriously but always see her as a whore: ‘Tis such another fitchew! Marry, a perfumed one! Desdemona does not understand how men can label women ‘whores' for she insists that such a woman does not exist, and she therefore does not understand men's preoccupation with honour: -tell me, Emilia – That there be women do abuse their husbands In such gross kind? Misogynistic attitudes perpetrated by Iago and eventually developed in Othello reveal a distrust of women, and affirm the lack of understanding between the sexes. To Iago, all women are whores. â€Å"You rise to play and got to bed to work.† He is rude to his own wife and unhesitatingly kills her. â€Å"Villainous whore!† (He stabs her.) With Iago's manipulation, Othello adopts these views and his ‘divine' Desdemona falls straight from Madonna to whore. She has tainted his reputation and wounded his ego, (or so he believes) and he must kill her before she corrupts other men. â€Å"Yet she must die, else she'll betray more men.† His words to her become bitter and scathing: I took you for that cunning whore of Venice That married with Othello. The combination of their honour and misunderstanding of women makes the men easily jealous. We see this in their quickness to damn their wives as adulteresses without concrete evidence. Othello is so distrusting, the absence of a handkerchief becomes the ‘ocular' proof, when ironically he has seen nothing. His jealousy makes him willing to condemn. â€Å"Damn her, lewd minx!† Iago also accuses his wife with unfounded suspicion of sleeping with Cassio and Othello: He's done my office. I know not if it be true, But I, for mere suspicion in that kind, Will do as if for surety.† The men and women in Othello do not understand each other. The men's preoccupation with honour and romantic ideals of love, leads them to misunderstand women viewing them as either whores or Madonnas and possessions for men. The women, in contrast, are more mature and realistic. However women such as Desdemona overestimate the men and are unable to empathise with their attitudes, or recognise their jealous natures.

Gender relationships in one of the two course plays Essay

Show how gender relationships in one of the two course plays is used by the playwright to throw light on our understanding of the main character, and the overall themes of the play. A view from the bridge is based in Brooklyn, an Italian community set in the 1950s. This particular part of the 20th century was seen as a rather sexist era. Men were a lot more dominant, women were known to stay at home cooking and cleaning-like every wife seems to do today! However aside from that, men felt like they had to be ‘men’ all the time. They felt like if they expressed their feelings, talked about their troubles or cried, these men would be laughed at and ridiculed. Eddie Carbone is a hard working longshoreman who works on the docks in his local area. Eddie is a typical bloke; he is a proud and stubborn man but is a loving husband to his wife Beatrice and a caring father figure to his niece Catherine. To the audience in the first part of the play Eddies comes across as the typical over protective father, however as the play progresses his feelings for Catherine become obvious that they are a lot heavier than what we are led to believe. Throughout the play we discover Eddie has fallen in love with his niece but his feelings are not sexual, in my opinion it is an obsessive need that cant be controlled as realized by Alfieri, â€Å"Something perversely pure calls to me from his memory – not purely good, but himself purely, for he allowed himself to be wholly known. † Alfieri realizes his feelings for Catherine are exceptionally powerful and that their would be nothing that Eddie could do to control them or dissolve them. Eddie tries to open up to Alfieri but can’t quite get the words out of what he wants to say. There is also one other particular part of the play when Eddie goes to see Alfieri in his office. Eddie goes to seek advice in order to prevent Catherine from marrying Rodolpho. Alfieri subtly mentions Eddie’s feelings but doesn’t quite mention them in so many words. Alfieri says, â€Å"When the law is wrong it’s because it is unnatural, but in this case it is natural and a river will drown you if you buck it now. Let her go. † Alfieri is saying that it is illegal for Eddie to get involved with Catherine sexually. It goes against the natural order. However the only advice Alfieri can give is to turn Rodolpho and Marco in to immigration, but with them being family it wouldn’t be a wise move. Eddies love for Catherine is so strong that he is willing to go to any means necessary to stop her marrying Rodolpho, making the call to immigration the only way out of the predicament. Eddie calls immigration, aware of his betrayal to Beatrice but he is doing it out of love for Catherine. Beatrice also realizes Eddie’s feelings for Catherine, in one [particular scene Eddie ad Beatrice have a slight disagreement over Catherine which later leads to an argument over lack of sex. Beatrice wants to know, â€Å"When am I gonna be a wife again, Eddie? † Beatrice says it in this context rather than come straight out and says when are we going to have sex again. This way avoids embarrassment but still gets the point across without having to actually say it. Beatrice wants to talk about what is happening but she can’t get Eddie to open up to her. Eddies feelings are putting a strain on the marriage, sexually, physically and emotionally. But Eddie,

Ethics and Global Climate Change Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Ethics and Global Climate Change - Essay Example The countries of the present world which are more developed than other countries with respect to economic factors are greater contributors to the emission of harmful particles into the climate. In the same manner, the economically developed countries also holds higher power of addressing the issue of reducing global warming when it comes to inculcating cost towards utilization of various innovative equipments that can significantly reduce global warming. Stephen Gardiner, in his article addressing issues of climate change, argued that the nations which are economically developed or the rich nations should take charge of bearing the most amount of costs required for the purpose of addressing consequences of global warming or eradication of the entire issue of global warming. Stephen Gardiner argued this way principally on the grounds of strong perspectives of economics and liability. In terms of economical aspect, Stephen Gardiner presented reasoning behind his argument on the basis o f an Integrated Assessment (IA) model. The model unites important aspects of the systems of economy and biophysics with the aim of realizing the alternative effects of both the climate as well as policies related to economic perspectives on each other. The model primarily aims at determining a perfect policy for the climatic factors that can exploit in maximum the activities related to the welfare of society. This model along with various other Integrated Assessment models provided an astonishing result that quite less counteractive effects towards global warming would appear in the next coming years due to the fact that costs associated with reduction of global warming is more than the amount of benefits that can be acquired. Thus, the supporters of this model such as Stephen Gardiner cited the argument that on the basis of economic costs, the countries which are economically developed should strive towards adapting consequences of global warming rather than reducing. However, with several considerations of arguably true facts, it was put forward by Stephen Gardiner that the developed or the rich nations should undertake steps which would benefit the countries economically. Considering the liability perspectives, Stephen Gardiner considers the developed or rich nations to be more responsible towards contributing to the worse conditions of the climate in recent times. Taking an approach of â€Å"backward-looking†, Gardiner held that these nations should bear the most amounts of costs considering their past impacts upon the climatic conditions. The industrialized countries are held to be more responsible towards carrying the costs that have been imposed due to emissions during the past years. Moreover, on scientific grounds, the developed economies of the world have largely contributed towards generating emissions during the past years due to massive industrialization. Thus, Stephen Gardiner argued with the logic that it should be the responsibility of t he developed nations to compensate higher proportion towards addressing issues of global warming for overusing. Persuasive Factors of Stephen Gardiner’s Belief Considering various issues related to the strategies for reducing adverse impacts of global warming, Stephen

The British Government, the Bank of England, and the British Economy Essay

The British Government, the Bank of England, and the British Economy - Essay Example Presently, it is the bank in charge of the financial activities of the U.K government (Capie 2010). The bank has its headquarters at London, and has been the case since 1734. As from 1946, the bank was nationalised, and it has since monopolized the provision of banknotes in England and the Wales. The Bank’s roles of managing the country’s monetary policy are overseen by the Monetary Policy Committee (Goodwin, 2013). During times of public interest issues and economic adversity, the committee is authorised by the parliament and the treasury to employ the strategies it deems fit towards correcting the issue or situation in question. The major roles of the bank include supporting the country’s price and economic stability. Monetary stability is pursued through employing strategies to ensure that price increment does not go beyond the inflation projections of the government. Financial stability is pursued, by the bank, through the well-timed neutralization of the thr eats facing the country’s financial system. Financial and monetary stability are attained through the stimulation of the economic system and the manipulation of policy instruments. These strategies entail the bank’s cooperation with the treasury and the FSA (Financial Services Authority) (Capie 2010). The British Economy 2011 was a difficult year for the global economy with the UK not spared. In effect, this forced many forecasters to revise their yearly forecasts throughout the year. An example is the case of the OBR (Office for Budget Responsibility), which cut its GDP projections for the period between FY 2011 and 2013; it cut the projections from 2.4 percent, for the previous year, to 1.2 percent for a financial year, during November 2011. Furthermore, the events that followed continue to raise questions as to whether the revised figures will be realised following the worsening of the situation by the crisis in the Euro zone (Goodwin 2013). This outlook demonstrate s that the financial and the monetary strategies that are altered by the bank of England, which works under the directives of the British government particularly the parliament and the treasury, which determine the stabilization strategies adopted. The poor outlook of the economy shows that the two actors have not been effective, in manipulating financial and monetary instruments to the favour of stabilizing the British economy (Gordon, Scanlon, Travers and Whitehead 2009). The Double Dip of 2012 The UK economy entered year 2012 from a weak point. The preliminary projections of GDP growth from the fourth quarter of 2011 showed that the output of the economy had contracted by 0.2 percent at the end of year 2011. The monthly output projections from official reports demonstrated that manufacturing capacity had reduced throughout the summer time. The reports showed that the service sector had demonstrated higher resilience during the same period. However, the worsening of the Euro zone crisis, starting July of 2011, triggered a sharp price decline and an increase in the volatility of equity pricing that consequently affected the outlook of both consumers and businesses. These changes demonstrate that the British Government and the Bank of England had failed in controlling price levels, and employing the strategies of containing price volatility. Partly, the situation could have been triggered by the Euro zone crisis, but it demonstrated a lack of competitiveness and skilfulness, among the two economic controllers, in manipulating financial and monetary policy to favour the resultant economic outlook (Goodwin 2013). The adverse effects of the non-controlled economic outlook were evident from the downturn evident among many businesses,

Hurricanes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Hurricanes - Essay Example The paper explores hurricanes centering on the formation and characteristics of the hurricanes. A hurricane assembles energy as it progress across the ocean water, drawing up warm, moist tropical air from the surface and supplying breezy air aloft. The Coriolis force is essential in the creation  of a hurricane  although the force becomes weak near the equator. Thus, hurricanes can never form at the equator. Hurricanes typically haves an average diameter of about 500 km (311 miles) with strong winds  spiraling inward and upward at speeds that range from 75 to 200 mph (Ahrens, 2007). Hurricanes usually start as tropical disturbances in warm ocean waters with surface waters temperatures reaching at least 80 degrees Fahrenheit (26.5 degrees) or warmer. The low pressure systems  derive energy flowing from the warm seas. A hurricane usually starts as a tropical wave before it becomes a tropical disturbance. In the event that a storm attains wind speeds of about 38 miles (61 kilometers or less) an hour, the storm is otherwise referred to as a tropical depression. A tropical depression is known as tropical storm when it sustains wind speeds of about 39 miles to 73 mph (63 kilometers) an hour. If a tropical storm reaches sustained wind speeds of about 74 miles or more (199 kilometers) an hour, it becomes a hurricane and gains a category rating of 1 to 5 based on the Saffir-Simpson Scale. Hurricanes represent massive heat engines that generate energy at an immense scale. Hurricanes usually derive heat from warm, moist ocean air and release it via condensation of water vapor in thunderstorms. Hurricanes rotate around a low-pressure centre known as the â€Å"eye,† exemplified by light winds and fair weather. The â€Å"eye† emanates from sinking air at the centre. Hurricanes mainly spiral in a counter-clockwise direction  with the

Hydraulic Fracturing (What is Fracking) Assignment

Hydraulic Fracturing (What is Fracking) - Assignment Example Firstly, is it really â€Å"a golden mine† for all? Payoff to the owners of lands where process starts â€Å"can be as little as $15 an acre or up to $6,000 an acre† (Vergano). That means only producing company wins. Secondly, whole district is changing because of fracking nearby. It becomes more industrial: technics, new buildings and factories appears. There’re can be as advantages (more new workplaces, business development, etc.) as disadvantages from such changes. Grass disappears; drill sound and heavy equipment appears, changing landscape extremely. And what can be good for one district’s infrastructure can be bad for another. Often farmers and landowners suffer because of fracking in the neighborhood. Producing oil and gas process not only frights animals and harms agribusiness, but also probably pollutes air and water, so influences badly on a farm production’s quality. But what’s most frightening, fracking’s damage to the environment isn’t still known for sure. There’s simply not enough information to tell what harm fracking brings into a general ecology situation and a local inhabitants’ health (Vergano). Naturally, a lot of people are worried about using a doubtful energy producing method. Recently, University of Taxes and Duke University studies reviled that most harm from fracking can be caused from spills and wells, drilled and constructed in the wrong way (Vergano). And besides air and water pollution, a big question is how this method influences on lithosphere. An idea of fracking is making cracks deeply in earth’s layers. How safe is that? To my mind, most reasonable is an opinion that for every different place and with every different company answer on question â€Å"to drill or not to drill† can be different. Such big oil and gas producing corporations like Halliburton or Shell usually

Western Civilization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Western Civilization - Essay Example In reference to the creation of the universe and the formation of galaxies which are found to have taken place under a great deal of time and evolution, one must figure how indispensable a â€Å"first cause† is for according to Aquinas, an infinite series of causes is not possible. Though the universe seems infinite in space with unfathomable mysteries left to be explored, it has its beginning and thus, a cause which is itself not subject to a prerequisite of a separate cause. This proof serves a link and support to the fourth proof which accounts for the statement that God is the â€Å"greatest being†. Scientific efforts have heretofore shown evidence of how vast the immeasurable universe is and that our solar system is merely comprised in the Milky Way galaxy out of the hundreds of billions of galaxies known so far and this fact certainly leads us to imagine how astonishingly immense the Maker is of all these already colossal things. By the fifth proof, the saint argues â€Å"whatever acts for an end must be directed by an intelligent being.† Gravitational pull or force of gravity, as majority are fully aware of, keeps everything in place and puts the universe in perfect order as if it has originated from a thinking source that knows how to calculate, premeditate, and discern the heart of nature with remarkable sensibility. Looking at the symmetry widely present throughout creation within and beyond earth, it is rather difficult to deny that something or someone intelligent is responsible for the orderly structure and state of equilibrium. Otherwise, neither this world nor the overly extensive dimension it is a part of would have survived if it were to emerge from chances at random instead of through God’s intelligence by which logic and beauty alike are preserved. At this stage, it makes all the more sense to declare the third proof with conviction that God, indeed, is

Stress Management to Human Relations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Stress Management to Human Relations - Essay Example Arnold, Cooper & Robertson (1995) stated that a stress can be defines as a person's response to a disturbance and is any force that pushes a psychological or physical factor beyond its range if stability, producing a strain with the individual. It is likely to occur constitute a threat to the individual and a threat can cause a strain because of what it signifies to the person. Selye (1979) stated that job stress refers to the non-specific response of the body to any demands made upon it.. It is regarded to be an inner state or response to anything we consciously or unconsciously comprehend as a threat, either actual or reckoned (Clarke & Watson, 1991). While Robbins (2001) defines stress as an active condition in which the individual is faced with a chance, restraint, or demand linked to what he/she wants and for which the effect is apparent to be both tentative and vital. Stress at work is a comparatively new experience of modern lifestyles. With change, be it in working environment or change of cadre etc, comes stress and most certainly Professional stress or job stress presents a risk to physical health. Work linked stress in the life of controlled workers, subsequently, strikes the health of organizations. Actually Job stress is a chronic disease as a result of conditions in the workplace that adversely affect an individual's performance and/or on the whole well-being of his body and mind. A host of physical and mental illnesses attests job stress. Sometimes job stress can be crippling. In chronic cases a consultation with a psychiatric becomes necessaryt to validate the reason and degree of work related stress. According to Dr Bernard Lim, president of the Singapore Psychological Society (SPS), "Stress is part and parcel of life. In fact, without some stress at the workplace, we would not strive to meet deadlines or archieve production targets. Instead, one should look for alternatives to handle it. Resignation is only a last resort."On the reverse, there must be control in stress degrees since too much of it can be negative to one's physical as well as mental well-being. Dr. Lim also warned that "Excessive stress at the workplace can lead to increased blood pressure, heart rate, sweating, migraines, gastrointestinal disorders and emotional upheavals like anger, anxiety, depression and low esteem." Stress at Singapore: Similar to other industrialised countries, Singapore has to deal with a lot of major labour related challenges. The strong globalisation and fast technological development which is increasing day by day in the knowledge society has resulted in fast alteration in the Singapore economy and the labour market (A Turning Point, 2003). In reality, the entire employment landscape of the Republic is changing. Ho (2004) argued that Singapore's employment landscape is increasingly characterised by greater instability and more frequent job displacements. Furthermore, the fierce competition from overseas and an unstable domestic job market have brought in new challenges and demands on the workers of Singapore. These workers are required to realign attitudes and expectations by taking on latest attitudes of flexibility when searching for job opportunities (Ho, 2004; Aggarwal & Seet, 2005). Thus, retraining and lifelong learning have become a

Slavery and Civil War Essay Example for Free

Slavery and Civil War Essay For a long time a controversy has existed amongst historians regarding slavery as a cause for the civil war. A large number of Northern writers agreed with President Said James Ford Rhodes that slavery was the singular cause of civil war and but for slavery there would have been no civil war at all. The annexation of new territories of Texas, Oregon and Mexico were the source of all trouble because whenever the question of entry of any state to the Union came up before the Congress, both Northern and Southern states tried their level best to ensure its entry as a free or slave state respectively. Wilmot Proviso might have exploded the situation but was again saved by the compromise of 1850. As someone rightly pointed, ‘the compromise of 1850 was merely a lull which foreshadowed the coming of a storm’. This situation was further provoked by the Kansas-Nebraska bill. It re-opened the question of slavery. One of the immediate of the passage of the bill was that a struggle started between the free and slave states over the control of Kansas. The Lecompton Constitution 1857, the Dred Scott decision 1857 were the later incidents that involved the slavery question and led to civil war. Right from the start of Civil War pressure had been exerted on Lincoln to declare the war as a crusade for the abolition of slavery. To win the support of the liberal opinion in Europe, Lincoln issued his Proclamation of Emancipation on September 22, 1862, in his capacity as Commander-in Chief of the Army. It was declared that ‘on the first day of January A. D 1863, all persons held as slaves within any state or designated part of a state the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free. ’ No doubt, the abolitionists were insulted, attacked and persecuted, but they carried on their activities. All these actions and reactions did arouse the conscience of the people and in the north they stood up to defend them. The Abolitionists followed different methods, which resulted in split of the organization. The extremist group known as Garr achieved their objective. The other group known as liberty Party Men; was composed of moderates and believed in constitutional methods. They wanted to get into the Congress, control the presidency and bring about the desired reforms. They put up candidate in the4 presidential election of 1840; though they could not get him elected. 13th Amendment also paved the way for civil war. It was not the same 13th Amendment that we have today but this amendment preceded the Civil War, was adopted in February 1861. This version was adopted for an utterly dissimilar purposeto guarantee the validity and perpetuity to the institution of slavery in the Southern slave states, rather than to abolish it. This amendment was aimed at to guarantee to preclude Civil War. But the opposite happened. Another factor that contributed toward the intensification of civil was black soldiers. In 1862, President Lincolns Emancipation Proclamation enabled for African Americans to recruit in the Union Army. There was an earlier desire on the part of the African-American to join the war, but were negated to enlist in the army due to the secession fear of the bordering states. However after the Proclamation hundred thousands of black soldiers joined the army and their number mounted to approximately 180,000. From the above discussion, we can conclude that it would be fully an erroneous view to hold that slavery was the sole cause of the civil war but it is right to conclude that for slavery there would have been no civil war.

Competing views of the entrepreneur

Competing views of the entrepreneur The term entrepreneur has become to have a broad definition over the years, with many authors debating over the types of characteristics that make up a person who can be classed as entrepreneurial. The word originally came from the French meaning one who takes between but over the years the term has developed with varying definitions from academic literature, the media and often people classed as entrepreneurs themselves, causing great difficulty in finding a universal definition. In the late 18th Century, Cantillion and Say from the French school of thought were amongst the first to recognise the role of the entrepreneur. Cantillion first defined entrepreneurs as a risk taker, buying at a certain price and selling at an uncertain price. (Cited in Blaug 1986:220) Jean-Baptiste Say backed this up by stating entrepreneurs are the pivot of the economy, a vehicle for economic change. Deakins and Freel (2009). In the years to come, further concepts of entrepreneurs were developed and argued amongst academics. By examining the differing opinions from a broad spectrum of authors since the role was first distinguished, through the years where the meaning has become diverse and arguments have surfaced over the true meaning of entrepreneurship, I hope to make clear whether the term is so unclear to render it worthless or find some way of giving it some true common definition in todays society. To investigate the varying opinions and definitions of the entrepreneur successfully, it is important to compare views on all aspects of being an entrepreneur. By Looking into how entrepreneurs have ideas for new ventures, the effects on the economy, the number of entrepreneurs and the types of ideas they have and ways they become entrepreneurial. As a starting point it seems all academics and speakers on the subject regard entrepreneurs as opportunity spotters Shapero A (1975) develops this further stating In almost all of the definitions, there is agreement that it includes initiative taking, organising and reorganising of social and economic mechanisms to turn resources and situations to practical account and the acceptance of risk or failure Muzyka and Birley (2000:31) add to this idea stating No one should call themselves a successful entrepreneur until they have captured an opportunity. The basis of entrepreneurial debates is based around two main perspectives from contrasting authors of the Austrian school of thought; these include the Kirznerian perspective founded by Israel Kirzner and the Schumpeterian perspective introduced by Joseph Schumpeter. The origin of this long standing debate was around information and whether or not entrepreneurial opportunities were derived from new information (Schumpeter 1934) or access to previously inaccessible information. (Kirzner 1973) Kirzner explains how people use the information they possess to come to decisions about the best way of combining their resources in forming a good or service offering to a market. However if this combination of resources is not operating to full efficiency, there is potential to use a different combination of resources in order to make a greater profit. Gaglio and Katz (2001) consolidate this idea by explaining how entrepreneurial opportunities involve the creation or identification of new ends and means that have gone unnoticed by other market participants. However the conflicting Schumpeterian view focuses on new information, arguing that changes in technology, political forces, regulation, macro-economic factors and social trends create new information, used to create a new combination of resources to generate increased profits. (Schumpeter 1934). For example deregulation in the airline industry as Thompson (2004:301) explains when new airlines were allowed to fly into and out of Heathrow for the first time since 1977, it allowed access to new information for potential entrants to penetrate the market. Furthermore improvements in technological processes have led to entrepreneurial activity in the evolution of music players for example, from the audio cassette player through to the mass multimedia players of today, such as the IPod. Schultz (1975) argues that entrepreneurship is an equilibrating process, whereby situations of disequilibria caused by market participants not operating at maximum efficiency are dealt with by entrepreneurs acting on access to the necessary information to bring about equilibrium. Very much like Kirzner (1973) who both state that the entrepreneur reallocates resources using the most efficient method. However dissimilar to Kirzner, Schultz argues that the process takes time and equilibrium is often brought back about by trial and error or human resource investment. (Iversen et al 2008) Klein and Cook (2005:4) explained this in their research on the human capital approach to entrepreneurship, using farmers as an example of how they must deal with a sequence of many differing changes, especially in such an atomistic industry, making any adjustments much lengthier. In stark contrast to this approach, Schumpeter (1934) argued that entrepreneurship brings about the process of creative destruction, which Ellison (2002:136) defines as the dynamic disequilibrium wrought by the innovating entrepreneur, with his creative rather than adaptive responses to opportunities. Schumpeter suggested that entrepreneurs disrupt the existing system by shifting production constraints and brining about new technology which puts an economy into disequilibrium. Swedburg (2000:46) further explains Schumpeters theory of entrepreneurship by stating that the entrepreneur puts together a new combination; combining already existing materials and thereby produces something novel and innovative. However Steyaert and Hjorth (2004) explained how Schumpeters Disequilibrium reflects the existence of informational asymmetry about new sources of profit potential meaning that certain groups of people might have access to information ahead of others which opens up opportunities. Knig ht (1921) argued that if change could be predicted producers could plan ahead and thereby efficiently eliminate any profit potential. As Mises (1949:297) develops this stating how, profit opportunities arise from changes unforeseen by the majority. Schumpeter (1934) used his creative destruction theory to proclaim the temporariness of the entrepreneur, he assumed that entrepreneurship was a temporary attribute to an individual, as a wave of creative destruction that displaced old methods resulted in brisk imitation by competitors. Parker (2004:41) explained how after creative destruction, ultimately stability would be restored and entrepreneurship would reach a temporary cessation before the next wave of creative destruction. McDaniel (2002) agreed with Schumpeters idea in that when a new product enters the market that is new and unique is gives the entrepreneur a temporary position as monopolist. Conversely Scranton (1993) puts forward the notion of serial entrepreneurs and there existence since the dawn of industrialisation. Serial entrepreneurs are those who constantly buy and sell businesses to stay entrepreneurial. Hall (1995) narrows this broad definition proposing how the individual owns one business after another but o nly own one at a time. This type of entrepreneur challenges Schumpeters temporary entrepreneur and suggests that individuals can be constantly entrepreneurial Theorists further debate the frequency of entrepreneurial opportunities and how and why individuals decide to go from employees to employers in an entrepreneurial manner. Chapman and Marquis (1912:293) were amongst the first to investigate employing classes being recruited from wage earning classes. Schumpeter (1961:102) argued that entrepreneurship was a rare occurrence, as it stems from innovation, the ability to carry out new combinations. However in contrast Kirzner (1979) explained how entrepreneurial acts were much more common. Aldrich (1999) agreed with Kirzners statement due to the fact that most opportunities are constructive to established ways, which links back to argument on entrepreneurship being an equilibrating or dis-equilibrating process. When an entrepreneur decides to exploit an opportunity, again there is no universal definition on their motives. Oxenfeldt (1943:109) points out that real entrepreneurs confine their adventures to lines of business that they were previously engaged in as an employer or employee. Knight (1921) agrees stating Those with prior experience in an industry as a customer or supplier often have a better understanding of how to meet demand conditions in that market place. However as Hamilton and Harper (1994) argue, this goes against the theoretical entrepreneur as omniscient, profit-orientated, opportunistic and versatile. Nonetheless as versatile as an entrepreneur might be, Baumol (1993) highlights that when people cannot fully know the full range of options facing them, the calculation of an optimum within a given set of constraints is impossible Mark Casson has tried to develop a modern theory of entrepreneurship, by fusing together entrepreneurial attributes and theories of many of the older authors. One major area of his work was in the supply of entrepreneurs. Casson (1982) distinguished between two groups of entrepreneurs, those who value their leisure at less than the prevailing real wage and those who value it more. He explains how the latter group have a strong chance of becoming an entrepreneur, if the returns of entrepreneurship rises above the real wage rate. Eisenhauers (1995) model of the decision to become an entrepreneur is very much like Cassons as it is also based on the expected utility derived from income and the working conditions of employment vs self-employment. However Casson (1982) stressed that any supply of entrepreneurs are qualified entrepreneurs who are defined as having access to the necessary resources in order to back their thought, such as wealth, contacts or the relevant financing in place, t herefore for Casson, entrepreneurship is much more of a resource, whereby firms or individuals with the capital can invest in individuals with entrepreneurial ability. A real life example of this would be the BBCs Dragons Den programme whereby successful entrepreneurs who have created multi-millionaire empires, invest their masses of capital, in smaller scale entrepreneurs looking for investment in their ideas. Kirzner (1973) has a differing opinion, he expresses that entrepreneurship is not a factor of production and entrepreneurial alertness is non deployable and costless, meaning that no resources are needed to detect entrepreneurial opportunities, he also discarded the use of supply and demand curves with entrepreneurs. As much as opportunities can be spotted, the supply of entrepreneurs to an economy depends on their willingness to act upon them. McClelland (1961) identified that a major factor in an individuals willingness to act was motivation and the need for it in achievement. When individuals decide to exploit opportunities, there are further debates between academics over the types of entrepreneur. Schumpeter had the stance that only certain, extraordinary individuals have the ability to be entrepreneurial, Hanusch and Pyka (2007:289) explained his point in that extraordinary effort required to work out a scheme of innovation, the need to escape from deeply embedded modes of thinking and acting and the task of inducing many other people to make changes. Marshall (1994) defined his entrepreneur as someone who had a thorough understanding of their industry and are natural leaders, claiming that very few can possess all of the skills required to be entrepreneurial to a high enough extent, very much like Schumpeters extraordinary person. However, unlike Schumpeter, Marshall (1994) implies that people can be taught to acquire the skills necessary to be an entrepreneur. Schumpeter (1934:85) goes on to describe his entrepreneur as rational, egotistical and self -centred to an extent that is peculiar and rare by nature. Barnes (2000:65) described this as an individual in setting in that this self centeredness is a disconnection from the constraints of tradition and habit that allow new combinations to commence. Dissimilarly to this is the view of Kirzner (1973) who thought that anybody can be an entrepreneur, since it presupposes no special initial good fortune in the form of valuable assets as the new entrepreneur is not protected at all. In todays society , many entrepreneurs agree with Kirzner, explaining how anyone can become an entrepreneur, one of Britains most popular entrepreneurs Duncan Bannatyne wrote an autobiography entitled Anyone can do it which highlights how he rose to success and makes references to how it is possible for others today. Knight (1921) states only that the entrepreneur is a risk taker meaning that the entrepreneur is prepared to take on an element of risk for the chance of a reward of profit, this being the revenue generated for taking on uncertainty. Knight developed his idea of the entrepreneur being a risk taker by clarifying the difference between risk and uncertainty. Risk being where differing outcomes can be forecasted to some degree with uncertainty being where outcomes cannot be envisaged. Brockhaus (1980b) disagreed with Knight, he could not see any difference between the risk taking levels of new entrepreneurs from those of managers or the general public. Schumpeter (1934) agreed and expressed that risk can just be part of business ownership and not an entrepreneurial attribute; he expressed how it was the lender of capital who was at risk rather than the entrepreneur. Although Hull et al (1980) found in their study that entrepreneurs have a greater tendency to take risks, with Palmer (1971 ) suggesting that the testing of entrepreneurs be directed most towards the measurement of an individuals perception and handling of a risk. Say (1803) also highlighted the notion of the entrepreneur taking risk in bringing different factors of production together, with Say (1803) being one of the first to regognise the role of the entrepreneur and the characteristic of being a risk taker still being used in literature today, this can be seen as a strong characteristic of any entrepreneur. George Shackle (1970) described the entrepreneur as creative and imaginative. Rickets (2002) developed this idea stating that the imaginative idea comes from the exercise of developing alternative future states of affairs. Shackles View (1970) centralises on the role of uncertainty and how the imaginative entrepreneur can visualise how best to arrange resources in a changing uncertain world. In other words uncertainty gives rise to opportunities. Shackles work was based around Cantillions early ideas of entrepreneurship being buying at a certain price and selling at an uncertain price. However Earl (2003:68) strongly criticised Shackles ideas stating how this creativeness that he emphasises should be more focused to the work of Schumpeter who brought about creative destruction and the idea of the entrepreneur being extra-ordinary and special as appose to the intermediary idea of authors such as Cantillion and Kirzner. One of the main areas of debate between academics is over the type of act that can be classed as entrepreneurial. Schumpeter (1934) is strongly remembered for his theory of the entrepreneur being an innovator, this relates to the ideas discussed before regarding Schumpeters (1934) entrepreneur shifting production constraints and bringing about new processes and technologies, he defined entrepreneurs as the creators of change in the sense that they have a vision and the urge to be successful in achieving it. An example of this could be James Dyson who produced the worlds first bag-less vacuum cleaner which in tern rendered the Hoover almost worthless. Fagerburg and Mowery (2005) made an important distinction between invention and innovation, invention being the first occurrence of an idea, with innovation being the first attempt to carry it out into practice. Edquist (1997) defined technical innovations as the introduction of new knowledge or new combinations of existing knowledge int o the economy, from this Sternburg (2000) highlighted the importance of innovation, supporting Schumpeters idea of the innovating entrepreneur, with his stance of business growth stemming from the companys ability to constantly innovate. Drucker (1985) like Schumpeter also, agues that innovation is the tool of entrepreneurs, however he goes on, that entrepreneurship is also about improving total quality and adding value. An example of this being the McDonalds chain, in that they did not create anything new when the business began in 1940, offering the same as many American restaurants at the time. However through the application of management concepts, most notably their Speedy service system which added value and created a new industry as such, to Drucker (1985), this is entrepreneurship. Kirzner (1973) had very different views on the roles of his entrepreneur in that he believed they were alert to profitable opportunities for exchange. His idea of the entrepreneur was one of an intermediary in a supply chain, in other words a middle man between individuals. As previously mentioned the Kirznerian (1973) entrepreneur seeks imbalances in the market and aims to eradicate them with their entrepreneurial action. An example of a Kirznerian entrepreneurial action was the launch of Accommodationforstudents.com, founded by two students in 2000, who noticed imbalances in the market place through the personal difficulties they had in finding accommodation throughout their studies. This validates Marshalls (1994) theory that having a thorough understanding of the industry is necessary to entrepreneurial success. Kirzner (1978) explained how his ideas were often based around those of Ludwig Von Mises after being his assistant for some years. Mises (1951) explains how profit emerge s from the entrepreneur that can judge the future prices of products more than others do and therefore buy any factors of production at low prices before they increase. It is also alleged that this activity takes place within an economy with limited resources and production confines. This can be illustrated using the production possibility frontier below. Kirzner (1973) argues that activities take place within the curve and his entrepreneur pushes activities to their maximum to reach the edge. Yet Schumpeter (1934) suggests that the entrepreneur pushes the curve outwards with the introduction of new technologies and methods as production possibilities in the economy therefore increase. An example of this in action could be the now ever mainstream use of the internet in business operations, over the past ten years this has allowed mass expansion of business operations with companies being able to operate in global markets. Landstrom (2005:15) Knights (1921) theory on risk and uncertainty being part of the entrepreneurial personality inspired other academics to investigate entrepreneurship from small firm management. Deakins and Freel (2009) use Knights assumptions of an entrepreneur being responsible for ones own actions, to make the proposition that managers who assume this responsibility are consequently performing entrepreneurial functions. However Shailer (1994:34) states how managers do not necessarily fit any of the current popular definitions of entrepreneur and concludes that whilst 90% of owner managers are obliged to fill the role as capitalist, only 20-40% will act as entrepreneurs under common definitions. Abundant amounts of research has been carried out between so called managers and entrepreneurs, a study by Miner et al (1989) found that entrepreneurs scored significantly higher on self-achievement than managers. Furthermore Mill (1848) appeared to believe that the inclusion of risk bearing distinguished th e term entrepreneur from manager, Shackle (1955) approved and highlighted the uncertainty element of the entrepreneurial process. One example of this might be in terms of wages, an employed manager of a firm is guaranteed a wage, whereas entrepreneurs have the uncertainty of their businesses performance. Ricketts (2002:80) comments on how once a venture is established, the scope for entrepreneurship does not cease, as continuous change in the economy requires adaptation by the firm, which results in the need for some entrepreneurial talent; Meaning that entrepreneurship can emerge from within companies. Galbraith (1967) introduced the concept of large firms being more successful than small firms in technology based industries, Schumpeters (1934) theory developed on this theme, with his notion of entrepreneurs emerging from within businesses, initiating change from inside a firm. He called these individuals Intrapreneurs. His idea was based on the fact that larger organisations have better infrastructure in place; established research and development facilities, high levels of available finance, connections with stakeholders of the business and the companies experiences. This idea was supported by Wu (1989) who described the firm as a collection of entrepreneurs. However drawbacks of the Intrapreneur can also exist, by transferring some power, to unproven individuals could perhaps be risky and put your reputation at threat also successful intrapreneurs may very well demand larger proportions of profit if they see their ideas taking off successfully. (Virtual Advisor 2009). An example of intrapreneurship having problems occurred at Xeron, whereby employees working on an idea were discarded when they suggested new software. The employees went on to develop this and created Adobe, one of the most popular digital post-script readers. Although at Google, employees are given 20% of their time to come up with new ideas which as resulted in services such as Gmail and Adsense, rendering the scheme a success. http://sgentrepreneurs.com/events/2009/01/24/after-ceo-unplugged-intrapreneurship-at-nus-entrepreneurship-week/ Miner et al (1989) and other authors views on managers and entrepreneurs http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0FxO_Wsh30kCpg=PA100dq=entrepreneurs+as+managers#v=onepageq=entrepreneurs%20as%20managersf=false http://www.jstor.org/pss/255515 RISK, PALMER AND MILL QUOTES Wu (1989) describes a firm as a coalition of entrepreneurs, which agrees a production policy, an organisational structure, and a rule for sharing the residual profits. (page 80 of Ricketts) Galbraith (1967) concept of large firms more successful that small firms in technology based industries, however this concept is more associated with Schumpeter Schumpeter argued that there were 5 sources of entrepreneurial change: 1) The introduction of a new or improved good 2) The introduction of a new method of production 3) The opening of a new market 4) The exploitation of a new source of supply 5) The re-organisation of business management processes. (1934) DYSON: Schumpeterian Following Audretsch (2002), we argue that the absence of a generally accepted definition of entrepreneurship reflects that it is a multidimensional concept, involving aspects of uncertainty-bearing, innovation, opportunity-seeking, management and enterprising individuals. Main thoughts References Aldrich H E (1999) Organisations evolving, London: Sage Barnes B (2000) Understanding agency, London: Sage. Page 65 Baumol W J (1993) Entrepreneurship, Management and the Structure of Payoffs, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Blaug M (1986) Entrepreneurship before and after Schumpeter, in economic History and the History of economics. New York: New York University Press. Pages 219-30 Brockhaus R H (1980b) Risk taking propensity of entrepreneurs, Academy of management journal, 23,3, 509-20 Casson M (1982) The Entrepreneur, Oxford: Martin Robertson and co. Chapman S J and Marquis F J (1912:293) The recruiting of the employing class from the ranks of the wage earners in the Cotton Industry, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Vol 75 No 3 pp293-313 Deakins and Freel (2009) Entrepreneurship and Small Firms, 5th edition, Berkshire: Mcgraw-Hill. Drucker P F (1985) Innovation and Entrepreneurship, New York: Harper and Row. Earl P E (2003) Information, Opportunism and economic coordination, USA: Edward Elgar Publishing. Page 68 Edquist C (1997), Systems of Innovation Technologies, Institutions and Organizations, London: Pinter Eisenhauer J (1995) The Entrepreneurial Decision: Economic theory and empirical evidence. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 19(4), 67-79 Ellison A P (2002) Entrepreneurs and the transformation of the global economy, Cheltenham: Edward Elder publishing Limited. Page 136 Fagerburg J and Mowery D (2005), The Oxford Handbook of Innovation, Oxford : Oxford University Press Gaglio C and Katz J (2001) The psychological basis of opportunity identification: Entrepreneurial alertness. Small Business economics, 16, 95-11 Galbraith J K (1967) The New Industrial State, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Hall, P. (1995) Habitual owners of small businesses, Small Firms Partnership for Growth, London: Paul Chapman, pp. 217-230 Hamilton R T and Harper D A (1994) The Entrepreneur in theory and practice, Journal of economic studies, 21(6) pp 3-18 Hanusch and Pyka (2007) Elgar comparison to neo-Schumpeterian economics, USA: Edward Elgar Publishing. Page 289 Hull D, Bosley, J and Udell, G (1980). Renewing the hunt for the heffalump: Identifying potential entrepreneurs by personality characteristics. Journal of Small Business, 18, 11-18. Iversen J R Jorgensen Nikolaj Malchow-Moller (2008) http://www.entrepreneur.com/tradejournals/article/171539783_2.html Kirzner I (1973) Competition and Entrepreneurship, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Kirzner (1978) The Economic Point of View: An Essay in the History of Economic Thought, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Kirzner I (1979) Perception, Opportunity and profit, Chicago: University of Chicago Press Knight F (1921) Risk, Uncertainty and Profit, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. Klein P and Cook M (2005) T.W Schultz and the Human Capital Approach to Entrepreneurship, Division of applied Social Sciences. Available from: http://web.missouri.edu/~kleinp/papers/06011.pdf. [Accessed 21st November 2009] Landstrom H (2005) Pioneers in entrepreneurship and small business research, USA: Springer. Marshall A (1994) Principles of Economics, Philadelphia: Porcupine Press, 248-250. McClelland D C (1961) The Achieving Society, D Van Nostrand co, Princeton NJ McDaniel (2002) Entrepreneurship and Innovation; An economic Approach, United Kingdom: M E Sharpe. Mill J S (1848) Principles of Political Economy, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Milner J, Smith N and Bracker J (1989) Role of entrepreneurial task motivation in the growth of technologically innovative firms, Journal of applied psychology, 74 (4), 554-60 Mises (1949) Human action: A treatise on Economics. New Haven: Yale University Press. Page 297 Mises L V (1951) Socialism: An Economic and Sociological Analysis, New Haven: Yale University Press. Muzyka D and Birley S (2000) Mastering Entrepreneurship, 2nd edition, United Kingdom: Pearson Education. Page 31 Oxenfeldt A R (1943:109) New firms and Free Enterprise: Pre War and Post War Aspects, Washington: American council on public affairs. Palmer M (1971) The Application of Psychological Testing to Entrepreneurial Potential, California Management Review 13, 32-38. Parker S (2004) The economics of self employment and entrepreneurship, England: Cambridge University press. Page 41 Ricketts (2002) The Economics of Business Enterprise: An Introduction to Economic organisation and the theory of the firm, third edition. Page 80 Say (1803) A Treatise on Political Economy, or the production, distribution and consumption of wealth, New Jersey: Transaction publishing. Schumpeter J (1934) The theory of economic development. New York: Oxford University Press Schumpeter, J. (1961). Theory of Economic Development.Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. Page 102 Scranton P (1993) Build a firm, start another: The Bromleys and family firm entrepreneurship in the Philadelphia region, Business History. Shackle (1955) Shailer G (1994) Capitalists and entrepreneurs in owner managed firms, International small business journal, Vol 12, no 3, pp 33-41 Shapero A (1975), The Displaced, Uncomfortable Entrepreneur, Psychology Today, Vol. 9 pp.83 133 Sternburg R (2000) Innovation networks and regional development evidence from the European regional innovation survey (ERIS): Theoretical concepts, methodological approach, Empirical basis and introduction to the theme issue, European theme issue, European planning studies, Vol 8, pp389-407 Steyaert C and Hjorth D (2004) New Movements in entrepreneurship, United States: Edward Elgar publishing. Swedburg (2000) Entrepreneurial: The social Science View, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Thompson J L (2004) Strategic Management, 4th edition, London: Thomson Publishing. Page 301 Virtual Advisor (2009) Fostering Intrapreneurial Ideas, Available from: http://www.va-interactive.com/inbusiness/editorial/bizdev/ibt/intrapre.html#6, [Accessed 8th December 2009] Wu (1989) Bibliography Bannatyne D (2009) Anyone can do it, London: Orion Publishing Group. McDonalds (2009) Our History, Available from: Historyhttp://aboutmcdonalds.com/mcd/our_company/mcd_history.html, [Accessed 2nd December 2009] SG Entrepreneurs (2009) After CEO Unplugged-Intrapreneur at NUS Entrepreneurship Week, Available from: http://sgentrepreneurs.com/events/2009/01/24/after-ceo-unplugged-intrapreneurship-at-nus-entrepreneurship-week/. [Accessed 8th December 2009]

A Definition Of Postnatal Depression Nursing Essay

A Definition Of Postnatal Depression Nursing Essay One of the prime factors is considered to be the sudden postnatal drop in progesterone levels in the post partum days. (Nappi et al 2001) The placenta is responsible for the vast majority of circulating progesterone during pregnancy and its delivery is effectively responsible for the precipitate drop in levels post partum. There may also be other related hormonal changes including the fluctuations in prolactin levels (Hendrick et al 1998) and falling oestrogen and cortisol levels. (Halari et al. 2004) Symptoms can initially include irritability, tearfulness, insomnia, hypochondriasis, headache and impairment of concentration. There is a maximal incidence of these symptoms on about the fifth post partum day and these can progress to frank depressive symptoms over a variable period. (Ramsay et al 1995). There are various tools that can be used to measure the degree of depression and these include the Edinburgh postnatal depression scale,(Cox et al 1987), The Stein scale for maternity blues, (Stein 1980) and the Beck depression rating inventory. (Beck et al 1961) Key issues affecting vulnerable patients There have been a number of studies that look at the effectiveness of treatment of postnatal depression. One of the most recent publications (Dennis 2005) provides a meta-analysis of the factors which influence the outcome in the condition. The author concluded that the only strategy that was shown to have a clear preventative effect was intensive post-partum support from the healthcare professionals involved in the case. Curiously, this was found to be more effective than similar regimes which included an ante-natal component as well. The morbidity associated with postnatal depression has a number of potential consequences not only for the mother, but also the child and the rest of the family as well. (Oakley et al 1996) One of the most significant is the fact that one episode of postnatal depression is the greatest predictor (or risk factor) for another episode after subsequent pregnancies. The children are likely to have difficulties because of possible problems with bonding and the mothers possible negative perceptions of the behaviour of the children. (Cooper Murray 1997) Some studies have shown that mothers with postnatal depression have derived beneficial help from social support during pregnancy. (Ray et al 2000). It would therefore appear that the key issues in this area are identification of the predictive factors that make postnatal depression more likely and then the provision of prompt supportive measures if those factors are established. Local resources for support Apart from the more traditional resources of the primary healthcare team of the General Practice the Midwife and the Health Visitor, some centres have tried experiments with postnatal support worker provision (Morrell 2000). This particular study found that the patients found an high level of satisfaction with the service but no more so than with the services provided by the rest of the primary healthcare team. Analysis of the results showed that the postnatal support worker helped to achieve higher levels of breast feeding, but had little impact on the severity or frequency of postnatal depression. One significant factor that was found, however, was that support from a partner was a significant positive factor in preventing severe postnatal depression. Communication strategies Several recent studies have shown that healthcare professionals often fail to spot the signs of postnatal depression. (Bick et al 1995). Making the diagnosis is obviously the prerequisite of establishing a treatment regime so it is clearly vital for all healthcare professionals to be on their guard for warning signs sleep disturbance, irritability, mood swings and irrationality. (Ramsay et al 1995) Reflection and reflective practice is a vital part of effective nursing. (Gibbs 1998) . Each healthcare professional should ideally reflect upon their management of each individual case to decide whether they were communicating optimally with the patient and that they were fully receptive to all that was on the patients agenda. Communication is a two-way modality. Bulman (et al.2004) points to the need to understand, at a deeper level, just what it is the message that the patient is taking away from any interaction. Communication is therefore vital in the strategy to empower and educate the vulnerable patient. Role of midwife and Health Visitor The new mother is often at the centre of an emotional rollercoaster. The sudden culmination of nine months of expectation results (frequently) in a flurry of support from healthcare professionals and family, which then rapidly evaporates and the mother is left to deal with the new situation which is frequently stressful. (Kitzman et al 1997) The midwife can obviously help by preparing the ground in the antenatal period and offering support in the immediate postnatal period. (Dennis 2005). The health visitor is probably better placed to be aware of any developing warning signals that postnatal depression is developing, as they are likely to be in contact with the patient during the high risk period. (Cooper Murray 1995). It has been suggested that encouragement of the mother to attend the health visitor clinic rather than to have home visits is a positive way of encouraging social inclusion. (Seeley et al 1996) Studies which have looked at the cost-effectiveness of using community postnatal support service workers have shown no benefit over the more traditional midwife and Health Visitor support. (Morrell et al 2000) Back to: Essay Examples References Affonso DD, De AK, Horowitz JA, Mayberry LJ. 2000 An international study exploring levels of postpartum depressive symptomatology. J Psychosom Res 2000;49: 207-16. Beck AT, Ward CH, Mendelson M, Mock J, Baugh J. 1961 An inventory for measuring depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1961;4:561-71. Bick D, MacArthur C. 1995 The extent, severity and effect of health problems after childbirth. Br J Midwifery 1995; 3: 27-31 Bulman Schultz 2004 Reflective Practice in Nursing The Growth of the Professional Practitioner Third Edition Edited By: CHRIS BULMAN, School of Health Care, Oxford Brookes University SUE SCHUTZ, Oxford Brookes University 2004 Cooper Murra 1995 Course and recurrence of postnatal depression. Evidence for the specificity of the diagnostic concept The British Journal of Psychiatry 166: 191-195 (1995) Cooper P, Murray L. 1997 Prediction, detection, and treatment of postnatal depression. Arch Dis Child 1997;77: 97-9 Cox JL, Holden JM, Sagovsky R. 1987 Detection of post-natal depression. Development of the 10-item Edinburgh post-natal depression scale. Br J Psychiatry 1987;150:782-6. Dennis C-L. 2005 Psychosocial and psychological interventions for prevention of postnatal depression: systematic review BMJ, Jul 2005; 331: 15. Gibbs, G (1998) Learning by doing: A guide to Teaching and Learning methods EMU Oxford Brookes University, Oxford. 1998 Halari, V. Kumari, R. Mehrotra, M. Wheeler, M. Hines, and T. Sharma 2004 The Relationship of Sex Hormones and Cortisol with Cognitive functioning in Schizophrenia J Psychopharmacol, September 1, 2004; 18(3): 366 374. Hendrick, L. L. Altshuler, and R. Suri 1998 Hormonal Changes in the Postpartum and Implications for Postpartum Depression Psychosomatics, April 1, 1998; 39(2): 93 101 Kitzman H, Olds DL, Henderson CR, Hanks C, Cole R, Tatelbaum R, et al. L 1997 Effect of prenatal and infancy home visitation by nurses on pregnancy outcomes, childhood injuries, and repeated childbearing. JAMA 1997; 278: 644-652 Nappi, F. Petraglia, S. Luisi, F. Polatti, C. Farina, and A. R. Genazzani 2001 Serum Allopregnanolone in Women With Postpartum Blues Obstet. Gynecol., January 1, 2001; 97(1): 77 80. Oakley A, Hickey D, Rajan L. 1996 Social support in pregnancy: does it have long-term effects? J Reprod Infant Psychol 1996; 14: 7-22. Oates MR, Cox JL, Neema S, Asten P, Glangeaud-Freudenthal N, Figueiredo B, et al. 2004 Postnatal depression across countries and cultures: a qualitative study. Br J Psychiatry Suppl 2004;46: s10-6. OHara M, Swain A. 1996 Rates and risk of postpartum depressiona meta-analysis. Int Rev Psychiatry 1996;8: 37-54. Ramsay. R and T. Fahy 1995 Recent Advances: Psychiatry BMJ, July 15, 1995; 311(6998): 167 170. Ray KL, Hodnett ED. 2000 Caregiver support for postpartum depression. In: Cochrane Collaboration,ed. Cochrane Library. Issue 1. Oxford: Update Software, 2000. Seeley S, Murray L, Cooper PJ. 1996 The outcome for mothers and babies of health visitor intervention. Health Visitor 1996;69:135-138. Stein GS. 1980 The pattern of mental change and body weight in the first post partum week. J Psychosom Res 1980;24:1165-71.

Richard Rodriguez :: essays research papers

Close Reading "It mattered that education was changing me. It never ceased to matter. My brother and sisters would giggle at our mother’s mispronounced words. They’d correct her gently. My mother laughed girlishly one night, trying not to pronounce sheep as ship. From a distance I listened sullenly. From that distance, pretending not to notice on another occasion, I saw my father looking at the title pages of my library books. That was the scene on my mind when I walked home with a fourth-grade companion and heard him say that his parents read to him every night. (A strange sounding book-Winnie the Pooh.) Immediately, I wanted to know, what is it like?" My companion, however, thought I wanted to know about the plot of the book. Another day, my mother surprised me by asking for a "nice" book to read. "Something not too hard you think I might like." Carefully I chose one, Willa Cather’s My ‘Antonia. But when, several weeks later, I happene d to see it next to her bed unread except for the first few pages, I was furious and suddenly wanted to cry. I grabbed up the book and took it back to my room and placed it in its place, alphabetically on my shelf." (p.626-627) As seen in this paragraph of Richard Rodriguez’s autobiographical essay "Achievement of Desire", he looks back on his childhood remembering his family, friends, and himself. Although, he can only recall feeling anger and sadness at the fact that his parents were poorly educated. His feelings are first seen when he listens sullenly to his mother try and pronounce the word sheep correctly. It seems like he is angered at the not only his mother for not speaking correct English but also his siblings for not correcting her harshly. He adds beforehand that his brother and sister would giggle at her for pronouncing words wrong and that they would "correct her gently." Also Rodriguez feels emptiness, and sadness when his friend informs him that his parents read "Winnie the Pooh" to him every night and young Richard wants to know what it is like (being read to). What made him feel this emptiness or sadness was when his friend mistook his question and told him the plot of the book instead. "My companion, however, thought I wanted to know about the plot of the book." He wants to know what it is like to have educated parents that can read to him but that is not possible. Richard Rodriguez :: essays research papers Close Reading "It mattered that education was changing me. It never ceased to matter. My brother and sisters would giggle at our mother’s mispronounced words. They’d correct her gently. My mother laughed girlishly one night, trying not to pronounce sheep as ship. From a distance I listened sullenly. From that distance, pretending not to notice on another occasion, I saw my father looking at the title pages of my library books. That was the scene on my mind when I walked home with a fourth-grade companion and heard him say that his parents read to him every night. (A strange sounding book-Winnie the Pooh.) Immediately, I wanted to know, what is it like?" My companion, however, thought I wanted to know about the plot of the book. Another day, my mother surprised me by asking for a "nice" book to read. "Something not too hard you think I might like." Carefully I chose one, Willa Cather’s My ‘Antonia. But when, several weeks later, I happene d to see it next to her bed unread except for the first few pages, I was furious and suddenly wanted to cry. I grabbed up the book and took it back to my room and placed it in its place, alphabetically on my shelf." (p.626-627) As seen in this paragraph of Richard Rodriguez’s autobiographical essay "Achievement of Desire", he looks back on his childhood remembering his family, friends, and himself. Although, he can only recall feeling anger and sadness at the fact that his parents were poorly educated. His feelings are first seen when he listens sullenly to his mother try and pronounce the word sheep correctly. It seems like he is angered at the not only his mother for not speaking correct English but also his siblings for not correcting her harshly. He adds beforehand that his brother and sister would giggle at her for pronouncing words wrong and that they would "correct her gently." Also Rodriguez feels emptiness, and sadness when his friend informs him that his parents read "Winnie the Pooh" to him every night and young Richard wants to know what it is like (being read to). What made him feel this emptiness or sadness was when his friend mistook his question and told him the plot of the book instead. "My companion, however, thought I wanted to know about the plot of the book." He wants to know what it is like to have educated parents that can read to him but that is not possible.

Attention Defecit Disorder Essay -- ADD Behavior Disorders Essays

Attention Defecit Disorder Attention deficit disorder, also called ADD, is defined as 'a disorder primarily a characteristic of childhood, marked by a consistent problem in paying attention,' in the book, The Lifespan by Guy R. Lefrancois (1999). It is more common among boys than girls but can effect all ages. Focusing on children between the ages of five thru ten, it is estimated that three to five percent, which is 1.35 - 2.25 million, of all children are living with ADD. When accompanied by serious hyperactivity, ADD is labeled as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, or ADHD. This disorder makes it very challenging for educators to deal with. Understanding the characteristics of this disorder, how to treat the disorder thru medicine, and how to teach a child with this disorder, will make it better for children and educators inside and out of the classroom. In the article, Teaching Children with Attention Deficit Disorder, it is said that there are two kinds of ADD; regular ADD and ADHD. To have ADHD, a student must portray at least eight of the symptoms from the following list: 1.) fidget, squirm, or seem restless 2.) difficulty remaining in a seated position 3.) easily distracted 4.) difficulty taking turns 5.) blurts out answers 6.) difficulty following instructions 7.) difficulty sustaing attention 8.) does not complete assignments 9.) difficulty playing quietly 10.) talk excessively 11.) interrupts or intrudes on others 12.) does not listen 13.) loses possessions 14.) frequently engage in dangerous actions. It also says that having ADD means that you have a short attention span, impulse control problems, and extreme hyperactivity. The disease begins in infancy and does not end until adulthood. It ha... ... do not know how to teach students with the disorder, then you are failing your duty as an instructor. The only way to help these children is to learn about them first. By doing this, a healthier learning environment is created for you, the students, and the school. References I. Franciois, G. (1999). The Lifespan. Belmont CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company. II. (1989). Teaching Children with Attention Deficit Disorder. Eric Clearinghouse. Retrieved April 3, 2005. Cook Library database. III. (1992). Providing an Appropriate Education to Children with Attention Deficit Disorder. Eric Clearinghouse. Retrieved April 3, 2005. Cook Library database. IV. Blair, C. (2003). Self Regulation and School-Readiness. Eric Clearinghouse. Retrieved April 3, 2005. Cook Library database. V. Theresa Davis- Relay Elementary School- Baltimore County Public School

Oxalate ION Essay

The dissociation of protons from oxalic acid proceeds in a stepwise manner as for other polyprotic acids. Loss of a single proton results in the monovalent hydrogenoxalate anion HC2O4−. A salt with this anion is sometimes called an acid oxalate, monobasic oxalate, or hydrogen oxalate. The equilibrium constant (Ka) for loss of the first proton is 5.37Ãâ€"10−2 (pKa = 1.27). The loss of the second proton, which yields the oxalate ion has an equilibrium constant of 5.25Ãâ€"10−5 (pKa = 4.28). These values imply that, in solutions with neutral pH, there is no oxalic acid, and only trace amounts of hydrogen oxalate.[1] The literature is often unclear on the distinction between H2C2O4, HC2O4-, and C2O42-, and the collection of species is referred to oxalic acid. otany patnawomenscollege.in/journal Explore, 2010, Page No. 63–67 Vol. II No. 2 Analysis of oxalate of fresh and stored tomato juice Devshikha*, Nitya Priyadarshi*, Sukriti Rani Prasad** *B.Sc. –II year (2008-2011), Department of Botany, Patna Women’s College, Patna University **Lecturer (Gue Premium663 Words3 Pages Study of Oxalate Ion St. John’s Senior Secondary School and Junior College Mandaveli Chennai – 600028 A CHEMISTRY PROJECT â€Å"STUDY OF THE OXALATE ION CONTENT IN GUAVA FRUIT† Submitted in the partial Fulfilment of the requirement for AISSCE 2010-2011 By Abdud Dayan Adeeb Of Class XII C St. John’s Senior Premium1368 Words6 Pages Oxalate Oxalate From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search The structure of the oxalate anion A ball-and stick model of oxalate Oxalate (IUPAC: ethanedioate) is the dianion with the formula C2O42−, also written (COO)22−. Either name is often used for derivatives, such as

Beowulf as a hero in modern society Essay

In the historic epic Beowulf, its title character, Beowulf, is perceived as an unconventional as well as a traditional hero in current society. Beowulf, the son of Ecgtheow and Hygelac’s thane, is presented as a fearless warrior to the audience. This acknowledgment of Beowulf causes the readers to instantly recognize that Beowulf is a well-respected man. Beowulf’s magnitude is seen at the very beginning of the poem as the narrator states, â€Å"The man whose name was known for courage, the Geat Leader† (Heaney 25). Beowulf is announced to the Danish people with magnificence. Before proving Beowulf’s heroic qualities, the viewers are conscious of the fact that Beowulf is a great warrior and the son of a well admired man. It can be distinguished that from Beowulf’s opening statements he will become a hero. Bravery is a key characteristic that identifies a hero. Throughout the entire poem Beowulf appeared to possess infinite valor. He displayed courage in his swimming competition with Breca, and in his fights with Grendel, Grendel’s mother, and the dragon that fatally wounded him. In all of Beowulf’s struggles, he revels wisdom, strength, and motivation. In his clash against Grendel, Beowulf utilizes his sheer strength to kill Grendel. He used his mighty strength to rip off the monster’s arm from the shoulder. As stated by the narrator, â€Å"The monster’s whole body was in pain; a tremendous wound appeared on his shoulder†¦ Beowulf was granted the glory of winning†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Heaney 55). The defeat of Grendel fulfills Beowulf’s heroic duty. This is also seen with Grendel’s mother. After Grendel’s death, Grendel’s mother desires to avenge her child. Beowulf fights her in water and still prevails. By keeping true to his word Beowulf is able to prove his worth. Near the end of poem, Beowulf faces his last episode. He takes on a dragon that is creating havoc upon the city. Before facing the dragon he knows that he might die and yet still fights with glory and all of his might. On page 171 Beowulf states, â€Å"This fight is not yours, nor is it up to any man except me†¦ I shall win the gold by my courage, or else mortal combat, doom of battle, will bear your lord away† (Heaney 171). Beowulf yet again completes his task as he kills the dragon, however, he immediately dies from his wounds. Beowulf, a true hero, confronts his death with bravery. It is Beowulf’s strength, determination, and courage that enable him to become a distinguishable hero in modern society. Although Beowulf is portrayed as a true Anglo-Saxon hero, he has qualities that would depict him not as one in current society. From Beowulf’s initial introduction he is seen as being conceited and aggressive. During the first feast, Beowulf tells of the story of his swimming race. Beowulf states, â€Å"I was the strongest swimmer of all†¦Time and again, foul things attacked me†¦but I lashed out, gave as good as I got with my sword†¦My sword had killed nine sea-monsters. Such night-dangers and hard ordeals I have never heard of nor of a man more desolate in surging waves.† (Heaney 37). This quote reveals the cockiness of Beowulf. He is very arrogant as he believes that he is the best and the bravest. Arrogance is not a characteristic of a hero. Another flaw is shown in Beowulf’s character as he fights Grendel and Grendel’s mother. Beowulf’s quarrel with Grendel exposes his true expression of violence. While Grendel and Beowulf are wrestling, Beowulf manages to get Grendel in such as position where he ripped off Grendel’s arm from the socket. This violent act can be seen as very brutal. The killing of Grendel in such a way would deny the right to name Beowulf as a hero in present society. In addition, the killing of Grendel’s mother has the same effect. While battling Grendel’s mother, Beowulf seeks assistance from an ancient blade. With this sword, he delivers a final blow to the neck of the monster. After determining that she is death, he still proceeds and decapitates her. He then returns with the head and displays it in Heorot. The decapitation of Grendel’s mother illustrates Beowulf as disrespectful and in violation of the heroic code, which doesn’t identify him as a hero. In the eyes of contemporary society Beowulf can be recognize as a paradoxical character as he is embodied by both heroic and callous qualities.

National Family Welfare Program

The institution of family is as old as man himself. It is the basic social cell. Sociologists and economists have always been propounding the ways to improve quality of life, which is difficult to achieve if the population remains unchecked. India launched a nation-wide Family Welfare Program in 1952, during the first five year plan, making it the first country in the world to do so. COMPONENTS The National family welfare Program in India has five components: A. Maternal and child health, extended to reproduction and child health care.B. Immunization of pregnant women by tetanus toxoid and that of children infant and preschoolers by BCG, oral polio , diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis and measles. C. Nutritional supplement- Iron and folic acid to pregnant women and children. Vit. A to prevent blindness D. Contraceptive education and distribution free and social marketing i. e Contraceptive Nirodh, Oral Contraceptive i. e Mala D, copper –T and that of voluntary surgical contracepti on E. Health education on primary health care particularly motivation to accept contraception.Emphasis on vasectomy was made in the national program, currently spacing contraception is promoted. A. Maternal and Child Health{MCH} It relates to health of mother during pregnancy, childbirth and post-natal period and that of newborn and neo-natal health. Reproductive and Child Health (RCH)- relates to extended MCH with adolescent and post-menopausal woman’s health. The RCH package covers: 1. Pre-reproductive Adolescent years: Health care of adolescent girl including health promotion, safe age of marriage > 20 years, prevention of unsafe abortion and prevention of sexually transmitted disease (STD/AIDS) . Reproductive Years †¢Contraception. †¢Legal Abortion ( MTP) †¢Effective RCH care to ensure safe motherhood. Risk approach RCH care is streamlines Male involvement in RCH care is essential. †¢Effective nutritional education to all and services to the vulnera ble group. †¢Service to promote child survival. †¢Prevention and treatment of reproductive tract infection and sexually transmitted disease including HIV/AIDS high risk labor by automobile transport. †¢Prevention and treatment of gynecological problems menstrual disorders or infertility. 3. Post reproductive Years †¢Prevention and care of genital prolapse Education on menopause. †¢Screening and treatment of cancer especially cervical cancer. B. Immunization: Immunization to the mother and child was made one of the important approach. The WHO launched its Expanded program on immunization against six most common preventable childhood diseases, viz. diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough), tetanus, polio, tuberculosis and measles. The government of India launched its EPI in 1978 with the objective to reduce mortality and morbidity resulting from vaccine-preventable diseases of childhood and to achieve self sufficiency, in the production of vaccine.UIP in India w as started in 1985. It has two vital components i. e. immunization of pregnant women against tetanus and immunization of children in their first year against the six targeted diseases. C. Nutritional supplement †¢Special Nutrition program: This program was started in 1970 for the nutritional benefit of children below 6 years of age, pregnant and nursing mothers and is in operation in urban slum, tribal areas and backward rural areas. The supplementary food supplies about 300 Kcal and 10-12 gms of protein per child per day.The beneficiary mothers receive daily 500 Kcal and 25 gms of protein. This supplement is provided to them for about 300 days in an year. †¢Balwadi Nutrition Program: This program was started in 1970 for the benefit of children in the age group 3-6 years. It is under the overall charge of Department of Social Welfare. The food supplement provides 300 Kcal and 10gms of protein per child. †¢Mid-day Meal Program: The program was started in 1961 with an o bjective to promote school admissions, prevent drop-outs and improve literacy of children. The food should be a supplement not a substitute. ?Should supply at least 1/3rd of total energy and half of total protein requirement. ?Economical. ?Should be such that can be easily prepared at schools. ?Locally available. ?Avoid monotony. †¢Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) ?Improvement of the nutritional and health status of children below 6 years of age, ? Basic service for proper psychological, physical and social development of the child, ? Reduction in the incidence of morbidity, mortality, malnutrition and school dropout, ?Effective coordination of policy and implementation amongst the various departments to promote child development and ? Improvement of the capability of mother to look after normal health needs of the children. For achieving these objectives following steps were taken ?Supplementary Nutrition ?Immunization ?Health check-up ?Referral services ?Health and nutrition education ?Non-formal pre-school education. †¢Creches for the children of working or ailing mothers. †¢Welfare of Handicapped children ?Scholarships ?Model schools. ?Educational and rehabilitative services. Financial assistance to voluntary organization. ?Integrated education with normal children in ordinary schools. ?Training of teachers. ?Manufacture and development of special aids. ?Special employment exchanges. †¢The Under-five clinic. This type of service was developed to dispense preventive curative and promotive health services in a unified manner The Under-Five card consists of – record of weight, assessment of nutrition and necessary nutritional advice, Immunization, family planning advice, treatment of Illness. D. Contraceptive education and distribution:Contraception education received a new impetus with the creation of the Mass Education Media (MEM) division within the Department of Family welfare during the Inter-plan period of 1966-69. U nder free distribution schemes and the Social Marketing Program, contraceptives, both condoms and oral pills are sold at subsidized rates. E. Health Education on Primary Health Care. Health education on following components was given through various Health professionals. ?MCH care. ?Immunization. ?Nutrition supply and Education. ?Adequate supply of safe Drinking Water, Personal Hygiene and basic sanitation. Prevention and control of local endemics. ?Appropriate treatment of common diseases and Injuries LANDMARKS oFirst five year plan- (1952-1955)- †¢Establishment of few clinics ?Training and research was conducted. oSecond five year plan- (1961-1966)- †¢Integrated family planning †¢Health education activities and †¢Community development programs. oThird five year plan- (1961-1966)- ?Family was declared as â€Å"the very centre of planned development†. ?The emphasis was shifted from the purely â€Å"clinical approach† to the more vigorous â€Å"exte nsion education approach† for motivating the people for acceptance of the â€Å"small family norm†.Fourth Five year Plan- (1964- 1974)- †¢Family planning services were rendered through sub centers, PHCs and MCH and Family welfare centers. †¢All India Post Partum Program was started in 1970 to motivate mother for planning soon after delivery. †¢In 1972, Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act was implemented. oFifth Five Year Plan- (1974- 1979) – †¢Renamed as Department of Family Welfare. †¢Population control and Family Planning were made con current subject in January 1977 by the 42nd amendment of constitution. †¢1977- Program got a boost by the involvement of VHGs, Indigenous Trained Dais and local opinion leaders. Sixth Five Year Plan- (1980 – 1985) – †¢To attain Health For All by year 2000, through Primary Health Care Approach the Government accepted National Health Policy in 1983 which laid down following goals: ? Net Reproductive Rate : 1 ?Crude Birth Rate : 21/1000 live births ?Crude death rate : 9/1000 population ?Couple protection rate : 60% oSeventh Five Year Plan ( 1985- 1990) – †¢Department of family welfare was separated from Ministry of Health †¢Universal immunization Program, oral rehydration therapy and various other MCH programs.All these programs were brought together under the Child Survival and Safe Motherhood Program (CSSM) oEighth Five Year Plan (1992 – 1997) – †¢Top priority to slower rate of population. †¢Focus on delivery of quality services and integration of other services. †¢April-96 – Target free approach was announced emphasised on providing quality services on demand based on the need of people. †¢RCH – launched, included; ?All components of safe motherhood programme with added components of RTI/STI. ?All components of Child Survival. ?Fertility regulation with a focus on quality care. Aims: To improve the management services at central, state, district and block level ? Seeks to attain holistic approach in implementation of this programme ? Focus on neglected geographical areas. ?Focus on previously neglected segments of population. oNinth Five Year Plan- (1997 -2002) – †¢Objectives – ?Reduction in population growth ?Meeting all felt needs for contraception ?Reducing IMR and MMR and Maternal Morbidity Rate so that reduced fertility rate is achieved. ?1997 -Target Free Approach was renamed as Community need Assessment Approach. ?A Comprehensive National Population Policy 2000 for achieving set goals and objectives.There has been significant decline in the mortality and fertility rates due to successive growth and development of family planning programe as shown in the following figure. CONCLUSION: The Family Planning Programme in India has come a long way and is considered as a way of life by most people. It can be seen from the figure that there has been an im pressive increase in the outlays in the successive plan period. But in reality the outlay for each plan falls short especially for taking up any new venture because most of the cost is utilized for maintaining the infrastructure.

God’s Existence and Aquinas Objection Essay

I was in the debate team in high school. And there were times that our team would take the against side of the statement. In his famous work Prologion, written in 1077-1078, Anselm presents the idea the God exists because God is the greatest thing of all, that the idea of thinking of God exists prove its existence. Hundred of years later, Thomas Aquinas brings up the account that addresses Anselm’s idea in objection 2 of Question II, First Article of Summa Theologica. Aquinas objects Anselm’s argument later in his work by attacking the idea that God is something that can be thought greater. To understand Anselm’s argument for God’s existence, one must first understand the principles that forms the argument. The first principle is the claim that â€Å"nothing greater can be thought. † There is too types of existing, existing in understanding (existing0) and existing in reality (existing1). Then, we try to think of something is existing1. Anselm let â€Å"something† be â€Å"something than which nothing greater can be thought (NGT),† or in another word â€Å"a being than which nothing greater can be conceived† according to the Proslogion. The very first act of thinking that something is existing1 serves as the basis of it existing0. Because in the process of trying to think of something greater, we already establish its existence0. For example, there is a flower A, existing1. This flower A is the most beautiful flower, that this flower is a NGT. In order to prove this flower is NGT, one has to think of all the flower he has seen, flower B, C, or D. In the process of searching through one’s mind trying to think of a flower that is more beautiful than flower A, flower A already exists in one’s mind, which is existing0. To open his argument, Anselm then said an example of NGT is God. The second principle is the principle of â€Å"thinking of non-existing objects (Principle E). † Anselm uses the example of a painter conceiving the drawing he will paint, then executing his plan in mind to make the painting exists in reality. To breakdown his argument, let’s begin with something that exists0. Because one has the ability to imagine that something exists0, one can also imagine that the same thing exists1. This priniciple is the most uncontroversial because it is just a matter of imagination. The fact that one has imagination allows him to imagine whatever he wants. For example, one imagines he won the lottery and has a million dollars. It is safe to say that one can proceed to think of that million dollars is existing1, regardless of if the million dollars truly exists1. Applying Principle E back to the argument of NGT, if one can imagine NGT in existence0, one can also go ahead and imagine NGT existing1. The third principle is â€Å"thinking something greater than something (Principle G). This principle compares the greatness of existing0 and existing1. Anselm proposes that â€Å"greatness† has two faces: qualitatively and existentially. To further support his argument, Anselm implies that greatness qualitatively means everything positive, such as, more beautiful, more knowledgeable, more influential, etc. Base on this assumption, Anselm argues that, â€Å"Suppose it exists in the understanding alone: then it can be conceived to exist in reality; which is greater. † To apply this principle in daily life, one can relate to a million dollars example above. One can imagine having a million dollars in his mind, but that million dollars doesn’t exist1. In another case, one owns a millions dollars, which means that million dollars exists1. The rhetorical question here will be, which case is more appealing to you, which scenario is â€Å"greater? † Back to Anselm’s claim, the â€Å"it† in his argument is, of course, NGT, which is God. That God exists1 is better than God only exists0 but not exists1. The next principle returns to the basic meaning of NGT. Principle N presents the idea â€Å"if something can be thought to be greater than x, then x is not an NGT. † Assume something is an NGT, nothing greater can be thought. If there is another thing that is greater then it. This â€Å"something† is no longer an NGT. This principle is pretty self-explanatory. To put it in everyday examples, imagine the beautiful flower A is the most beautiful flower in the whole wide world. However, one found another flower more beautiful than A. Now A is no longer an NGT, regardless in existence0 or existence1. Now substitute God in for NGT in the equation. Because Anselm already claimed that God is an NGT, if one can think of something greater than God, God is no longer an NGT. According to the Proslogion, â€Å"God cannot be conceived not to exist. –God is that, than which nothing greater can be conceived. –That which can be conceived not to exist is not God. † The upcoming principle’s idea bases that of principle E. Principle T simply proposes the idea that â€Å"an NGT can be thought. † Because one has the ability to think of an object either exists0, exists1, or even both, one can also think of NGT existing0, existing1, or both. The idea that one can think of something is very broad and universal, that â€Å"something† can simply be anything. The final piece of Anselm’s argument is Principle M. This principle presents the very vague idea that â€Å"if something must be thought as existing1, then it exists1. † If one must think of a flower exists1, then that flower does exist1. Now that all principles Anselm needed to support his argument that God exists are gathered, he begins his argument with a â€Å"fool (thinker)† that â€Å"understands [God] is in his understanding; although he does not understand it to exist. † To fully understand this argument, one has to accept Anselm’s assumption that God, indeed, is an NGT. The argument that the thinker has the ability to think of NGT existing1 is based on Principle E that if one can think of an object then he can think of it existing1. The idea of thinking NGT exists1 is â€Å"greater† than the idea of thinking NGT exists0 but doesn’t exist1 (Principle G); therefore, one can think of something greater than the NGT that exists0 but not in reality. However, this violates the basic meaning of an NGT (Principle N), nothing greater can be thought. So the idea that one can think of something greater than the NGT that exists0 but not in reality is contradictory to the fundamental element of an NGT. Which comes to the agreement that if one think of an NGT it is to be existing1. The conclusion implies the principle that one can thought of NGT exists1 (Principle T). Also, one can and must only think of an NGT exists1. This lead to the final conclusion. If one has no choice but think of something exists1, that something must be existing1 (Principle M). Therefore, an NGT, God, exists. Aquinas gives an condensed version account of Anselm’s argument in Summa Theologica. In objection 2 of question II, â€Å"Whether the existence of God is self-evident? †, Aquinas addresses the idea much abruptly. He first implies that Anselm’s idea of God is an NGT is equivalent to saying â€Å"things are said to be self-evident which are known as soon as the terms are known,† that the significant of the word â€Å"God† is nothing better can be conceived. He follows the account by stating that the word â€Å"God† â€Å"exists actually and mentally is greater than that which exists only mentally. † Therefore, if the word â€Å"God† is understood mentally it has to be understood to exist actually. Both Anselm’s argument of Aquinas’s account of it come to the same conclusion that God exists, that the thought of it existing lead to its real existence. Aquinas objects Anselm’s idea by stating that not everyone understands the word â€Å"God† will agree that it is an NGT. He follows his objection by stating: Yet, granted that everyone understands that by this name God is signified something than which nothing greater can be thought, nevertheless, it does not therefore follow that he understands that what the name signifies exists actually, but only that it exists mentally. Aquinas’s main objection is that the idea of NGT can be interpreted that it can only exists mentally. However, for Anselm’s argument to work, one has to understand that God can exists in reality; therefore, Aquinas further objects Anselm’s claim by stating those â€Å"who hold God does not exist† will not admit the fact that God is an NGT and it exists in reality. In Anselm’s defense, he based all his argument on the fact that God is â€Å"a being than which nothing greater can be conceived. † As a true believer of God, Anselm would have simply oppose those who does not believe in God has not fully understand the meaning of â€Å"God†; therefore, they fail to grasp the idea God exists in reality. If one understands God, he will be able to think of God’s existence in mind then agree to think of it in reality. After reading excerpts both from the Proslogion and the Summa Theologica, I am more inclined to support Aquinas’s claim. Although I do not think Aquinas has successfully destroyed Anselm’s argument, I think there are more weak links in Anselm’s argument than that of Aquinas’s. The most apparent loopholes are Principle M and Principle G. First, Principle M states that if one has to think of something as existing1, then that something has to exists1. However, Anselm neglects the fact that what one believes exists1 does not has to be true. For example, children were told to believe Santa Claus exists in reality and many of them do believe that idea. The contradiction being what those children â€Å"can and must† think exists1, Santa Claus, does not exists1. Second, the positivity of â€Å"greatness† implied in Principle G is too vague. The concept of greatness of reality is â€Å"better† than that of in mind can be subjective. Just because one person thinks the existence in reality is greater than existence in mind does not equal others perception of greatness. With doubts in Principle M and Principle G, I think Aquinas has a stronger position compare to Anselm does.